The French Stage

French theatre, like that of England, appears to owe it's origins largely to the church in the early middle ages - taking the form of liturgical plays and dialogues connected with the Christmas and Easter stories surrounding the birth and death of Christ. French theatre outside of the church, however, was able to develop much more freely than it's English counterpart, and by the fifteenth century had developed several distinct non-ecclesiastical genre's, such as farce (comedies characterized by broad satire and improbable situations), sottie (satirical and topical comedies employing actors dressed in traditional fool's costumes), chantefable (a mixed narrative of prose and verse) and pastourelle (a pastoral play generally revolving around the romance of a shepherdess and a knight).

Through most of the Middle Ages and Renaissance period, theatrical representations in Paris were kept tightly under the control of guilds, but by the end of the sixteenth century these had largely ceased to exist, thus opening the capital to a more theatrical companies and a wider range of theatrical entertainments. The early theatres in Paris frequently took over existing structures like tennis courts and consequently their stages were often extremely narrow, with facilities for props and sets being severely limited or non-existent. Early purpose built theatres were not dissimilar from their English counterparts, with open courtyards (parterre's) for standing patrons in front of the stage and raised galleries for the higher echelons. As in England, nobles were often permitted to watch from chairs placed upon the side of the stage.

The greatest distinction between French and English stage history is that France never placed any restriction upon women appearing on the stage, and in fact French women with touring companies were some of the first females to be seen upon the stage in England. As in England however, players, of either sex, were regarded with some disdain by the church which saw their calling as immoral.

Commedia dell'arte (unscripted comedies of improvisation) arrived in France in the latter part of the sixteenth century with touring Italian companies and became immensely popular, having a profound effect upon the French stage. French theater of the seventeenth century was of course dominated by Corneille, Molière and Racine. Racine and Corneille were tragedians, although the latter differed from the norm in that most of his 'tragedies' had happy endings. Moliere, on the other hand, specialised in satirical comedies which often brought him into conflict with the church authorities. This period also saw the rise of French opera.

In the nineteenth century, French theatre enjoyed a brief period of classicism, in which classically-inspired heroic tragedies were the mainstay, but his subsequently gave way to romanticism under the pen of Victor Hugo, Dumas, père, Gautier and others. By the end of the century, French theatre had begun to reflect a more realistic tendency in the popular theatrical melodramas. Farce was also popular and thius was the period of probably the greatest writer of French farces, Georges Feydeau.

It is not my intention here to present a full history of French theatre, the above being only a selection of highlights bringing us up to the period to which this site is dedicated. The stage of that latter era saw a number of French women establish themselves as international stars. Foremost among these of course was the legendary Sarah Bernhardt, 'the Divine Sarah', whon won acclaim as a tragedienne across the continent. Others to find fame beyond the borders of France included Gabrielle Rejane and Gaby Deslys, whilst Anna Held, although born in Warsaw, was essentially a french woman having been raised in Paris.

Reproduced below is a period account of the French stage as it existed in the Edwardian era.

The Stage Year Book 1908
THE FRENCH STAGE
SOME WORKING CONDITIONS
By GEORGES THURNER

One of the most striking characteristics of the French people is their innate fondness for the theatre and its doings. Their passion for the drama, as ardent in the big cities as in the smaller French towns, has necessitated the adoption of certain theatrical laws and customs, and has given rise to the formation of the powerful society for the protection of dramatic authors' rights.

In the present series of articles are set forth in detail the conditions, ways, and means under which provincial and touring managers in France exercise their calling, and the inner workings of the Authors' Society are described. Incidentally, the status of French dramatic artists is dealt with, and the articles will conclude with a short historical account of the Societe des Auteurs et Compositeurs Dramatiques, with a brief critical summary of its aims and functions.

A touring manager wishing to secure the provincial rights of a recent Paris production has to put himself into communication with the author or his representative, to discuss with one or the other the terms and conditions, and to guarantee in many cases a minimum number of performances - usually one hundred or more. If the piece has proved a great success, the manager has to offer the same royalty as that received upon the Paris performances viz., 12 per cent, upon the gross takings. On the other hand, should the play have been performed some years previously, and a revival on similar lines e.g., the inclusion of a certain star, or some other special feature promises to the tour a further success, the author's fees are very much smaller. In no case, however, is less than 6 per cent, accepted.

Under no circumstances can a play be toured without the consent of the author or his legal successors. Having procured this authorisation, the touring manager has to deposit with the Societe des Auteurs Dramatiques a certain sum as part guarantee for the due payment of the fees. This sum is returned to him at the conclusion of the tour on his presenting to the Society the receipts for the fees paid by him in every town where his company has performed. In order to arrange his itinerary, the touring manager communicates some four or five months in advance with the residential managers of the provincial theatres, to ascertain what vacant dates are available. If any of these theatres are "municipalised," i.e., the property of the towns, applications have to be made to the mayors of such towns.

Engagements for the cast for touring companies are usually effected in the Parisian cafes situated in the vicinity of the Faubourg Saint Martin, Faubourg Saint-Denis, and the Rue du Chateau d'Eau. At these rendezvous terms and conditions are discussed and contracts signed. Rehearsals are usually held in fit-up or minor theatres, many taking place in the Montmartre quarter, the small establishments of which but too rarely enjoy the patronage of the well-to-do playgoer. When the piece is ripe for presentation the company starts on its journey, the tour usually opening at Versailles. The length of the tour depends essentially upon the success of the piece. As a rule, however, the duration is from two to three months with breaks of about a fortnight or a month during the New Year and Easter festivities, when the companies return to Paris; after which, if the success of the play has been sufficiently encouraging, the tour is resumed.

It should be noted that tours are scarcely ever undertaken by the original Paris managements. A play presented in the capital is not sent round by the producing manager or syndicate, save in very rare and quite exceptional instances. The tours, in fact, are quite separate enterprises, organised specially for provincial patronage, and absolutely independent of the original Paris venture. The touring manager, therefore, once the expenses are covered, retains the profits for himself without having to render accounts to anyone.

Percentage systems on the gross takings, so usual in England, are the exception rather than the rule in France. Occasionally, however, in the large provincial towns Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Rouen, etc. performances are arranged on this basis, the terms varying from 40 to 60 per cent.

The receipts from the refreshment bars, cloak-rooms, etc., are usually retained by the resident manager, who likewise has the programme girls in his employ. When the piece requires special accessories, fittings and scenery, these are carried along with the costumes. With musical pieces, a small and limited orchestra forms part of the touring company, unless (which is more often the case) a pianist only accompanies the tour. On the other hand, resident managers are required to furnish ordinary stock scenery, scene shifters, electricians, or limelight men, programme attendants, box-office keepers, check-takers, in short the whole of the permanent staff of the theatre.

Performances by touring companies are given in most French provincial towns. Nearly a score of these containing over 100,000 inhabitants, and a large number, with populations of 50,000 upwards, possess regular theatrical establishments. In the smaller towns and districts, the companies perform usually in halls, public halls, the salons attached to cafes, and even barns, licensing facilities being more easily obtained in France than in England.

With the exception of the large towns (Bordeaux, Marseilles, Lyons, Rouen, etc.), the touring companies usually give but one performance in each place visited. When the company are of exceptional importance, through the inclusion of, say, a Sarah Bernhardt, a Rejane, or a Coquelin, the conditions are practically the same, except that the owner-manager of the company is replaced by a travelling representative manager who retains an interest in the venture, and is appointed by the star artist, a syndicate, or other proprietary. Occasionally, too, artists from the national subsidised theatres in Paris profit by their holidays to organise provincial tours. These special tours, always of short duration, are in the hands of managers who, as a rule, are veteran actors themselves.

It has been shown how the authors' fees, collected on the night of each performance by the representative of the Authors' Society, are secured by the deposit lodged, in advance, with the Society as a guarantee. The resident managers, likewise, when fixing the visiting date of the tour, adopt the precaution of having a deposit paid them as security. The artists alone run the risk of losing the fruits of their labour. In point of fact, professional engagements are usually made privately and directly between artist and manager. But, however strict the conditions may be, there is not a single clause in the contract which can legally compel an unsuccessful or dishonest manager to disgorge. This unjust and onerous position has evoked numerous protests which eventually led, some twelve months since, to the formation of a Protective Syndicate.

The object of this Syndicate is to bring employment of professional artists under the protection and jurisdiction of la loi commune, to secure for them the recognition of their rightful position as employees and workers, and thus to enable them, whenever necessary, to seek and obtain redress through the summary courts. A further aim of the Syndicate is the general adoption of a uniform engagement contract; a clear, precise form of agreement, common to all members of the profession, which should contain none of the present vexatious clauses, nor the totally disproportionate ratios of fines to salaries.

There are two clasees of theatres in the French provincial towns: the subsidised municipal establishments and the proprietary or independent houses. The former are responsible exclusively to the local Conseil Municipal, presided over by the mayor, who examines all the applications for the managership, controls the appointment of the manager, and determines his duties and responsibilities. The manager is liable to pay all the local rates, taxes, and other incidental outgoings. He has also to pay over at each performance the contribution due to the Poor Tax (Droit des Pauvres), to place a certain number of reserved seats at the free disposal of the municipality, and to pay the salary of the business representative of the Conseil Municipal, who exercises the control of the box-office and the check-takers. As regards the dramatic author, the municipal manager undertakes, when performances are given by the local stock company, the same obligations as (it has already been shown) are otherwise incurred by touring managers, i.e., the payment of the guarantee deposit, and the daily payment of the authors' fees to the agent of the Authors' Society.

The municipal manager cannot, in principle, perform any work without the authorisation of the author. The municipal theatres are required to give a certain number of popular performances either free or at reduced prices, and, as a rule, an opera season of about a month's duration. During the remainder of the year various kinds of plays are provided, but as there is rarely more than one theatre in each town, the municipal institutions cannot be said to compete seriously with existing proprietary theatres. The competition of the music halls and cafes-concerts with the regular theatres is in ratio to the importance of the towns. In the small communities it is practically nil.

In the agreements to tour a piece recently produced in Paris through France, the author almost invariably accords to a touring manager the exclusive provincial rights. Exceptions, however, are occasionally made as regards certain large cities Lyons, Rouen, Marseilles, etc. for which the authors prefer to negotiate direct, and, under more favourable conditions, with the residential manager. The Societe des Auteurs Dramatiques forwards annually to the provincial managers a list of plays which are considered to be no longer reserved. If in print, the resident manager may present them without any special authorisation. If, however, they have not been published, the resident manager would have to apply to the Society for the manuscript. This collection of unreserved plays is called the repertoire.

The permanent or stock companies are made up according to the relative importance of the towns. Special engagements are made for grand or light opera, and these operatic companies are strengthened at certain periods by the inclusion of Parisian or foreign stars. The important centres are usually catered for by both kinds of companies the stock or permanent and the travelling companies. In addition, there is another class of provincial theatres i.e., those situated in the smaller towns and localities, which are dependent for their fare upon the larger theatres of the nearest provincial centres, the latter closing their doors usually two or three times a week, and sending their companies to give performances on those evenings in the minor manufacturing towns. Finally, there are the showmen's booths, etc., moving from place to place at will. They, also, have to pay over the Droit des Pauvres to the municipality of each place visited, and the author's fee (usually a fixed minimum sum) to the representative of the Societe des Auteurs; for representatives of the Society are to be found in every town, village, or commune in France.

New pieces are rarely produced in the provinces. A few large cities, on the occasion of some centenary, exhibition, or special ceremony, venture from time to time to launch an unpublished play, but this is quite an exceptional incident. At the same time, one cannot forget that certain grand musical compositions, and even some of Wagner's operas, first saw daylight in France at Lyons, Rouen, and Bordeaux. The more usual production, both in large towns and small, consists rather of a special revue with topical ditties, songs, lampoons, and other allusions to local celebrities and events.

The class and number of plays presented during an evening vary much according to the district. In the North of France it is customary to give, during one and the same evening, a light comedy (vaudeville) in three acts, a five-act drama, and a grand opera, light opera, or comic opera in several acts. The performances commence at five o'clock in order to terminate at midnight. In the West, Centre, and East of France audiences are less exacting as regards quantity, but they, even, would not be satisfied with the usual three acts and a short curtain-raiser provided by the Parisian managers. It is in the South that musical pieces find the best and most numerous supporters. Comic operas are cordially welcomed, and light musical comedies are still well patronised.

The foregoing details refer specially to the provincial theatres. The management and organisation of the Paris establishments are already so well known that it would be needless to dwell upon them here. Suffice it to point out that with the authors' fees amounting to 12 per cent., and the Droit des Pauvres to 10 per cent., the manager has to deduct, preferentially, from his takings a sum representing 22 per cent.

From the foregoing it will readily be seen that the touring system generally, in France, does not enjoy the opportunities offered to the travelling companies in the United Kingdom, the English Colonies, the United States, or even in Germany. The conditions hardly permit of longer visits in the smaller towns than for one occasional performance, and even these occasional performances are frequently supplied by residential or stock companies from the larger town or city in the vicinity. The difficulty of giving a series of, say, three or more performances at one time in the minor towns, is due largely to the scattered disposition of the populations, the comparative rarity of large agglomerations of people such as one finds in the big manufacturing districts of England, the complete absorption of large numbers in rural and urban industries, and the consequent long hours of toil, which leave but little time or means available for recreation purposes, and the natural parsimony and thriftiness of the provincials both in the smaller towns and the surrounding districts.

The celebrated critic, Sauve-Beuve, in one of his Causeries du Lundi, writes: "The Societe des Auteurs Dramatiques, established at the present day, should never assemble without saluting the bust of Beaumarchais."

It was, indeed, Beaumarchais, author of the immortal Barbier de Seville and the Mariage de Figaro, who rebelled against the situation of the dramatic author - a prey to the exigences and caprice of every comedian and theatrical manager. The original statutes of the Societe des Auteurs dates back to July 3, 1777. The French Revolution officially recognised the position of this society, and proclaimed by the law of July 19, 1791, the "free trade" in theatres, or, rather, the abolition of theatrical monopoly, as well as the rights of the dramatist. From that date it has been decreed that no work can be performed without the formal written consent of the author, and during five years after his death (a period extended to fifty years by the law of 1866) without the formal written consent of his Legal successor.

At the end of 1791 Framery, a collaborator of Beaumarchais, started a dramatic bureau, which served as an "Exchange" between authors and managers, and ensured the collection of authors' fees. Business gradually increased to such an extent that in 1829 the office had to be duplicated, and the two agencies then created still carry on their operations at the present time. In this same year, 1829, by the initiative of the great playwright Scribe, the society assumed definite shape.

The rules (modified slightly in 1837, 1879, and 1904) were confirmed, with the following preamble of aims and objects:

The mutual protection of the rights of the associates in their transactions with theatrical or other administrations, and the collection of authors' fees from the Parisian and provincial theatrical managements. At the present day these aims have been enlarged by the inclusion of

(a) The collection of fees abroad.
(b) The creation of a benefit fund in aid of the associates, their widows, heirs, or relations.
(c) The building up of a retiring pension fund for associates; and
(d) The creation of a mutual fund on a share-profit basis.

In short, the society may be termed a fee-collecting and Authors' Defence Association.

The society has established special agencies in more than 600 towns in France and abroad. These agencies are conducted by correspondents chosen and controlled by the two general agents in Paris. The correspondents are instructed to deliver to the local theatrical managers, in the name of the author-associates, the written authorisation for the performance of the plays, as required by the law of 1791.

For each performance the managers deliver to the local correspondents of the general agents a detailed account of the takings, and on presentation of this account, signed by the manager, and also a further surety by the box-office keeper, the preferential payment of the author's fee is effected. Then, monthly or quarterly, according to the importance of the towns and the number of performances given, the correspondent forwards to the general agents a recapitulatory statement giving the programme of each performance and the fees collected. At the same time, the correspondent sends to Paris the separate account of each associate, and every one of these individual accounts is submitted to an audit carried out under the direct supervision of the Societe des Auteurs - Extract from the speech of Maitre Raymond Poinoare, ex-Minister of State, made on behalf of the Societe des Auteurs against the French Theatrical Trust.

At the head of the formal contracts entered into between the Authors' Society and the managers of theatres it is stipulated that the author's rights are made up of three distinct items:

Author's tickets have been a recognised institution ever since the ccntracts were first drawn up, so as to enable an author to have his play favourably (received by friends occupying his reserved seats. This right, considered indispensable for first performances, becomes of lesser importance for the subsequent representations. It was this circumstance which, in 1828 (one year before the definite enrolment of the Authors' Society) gave Jean Baptiste Porcher the idea of purchasing from the authors, at his own risk, all their bonus tickets for the third and subsequent performances at a discount of 50 per cent. This Porcher Agency is now carried on by M. Prudhommeaux, a nephew of Mdme. Porcher. Its history is intimately bound up with that of the stage, and to fully appreciate its importance one has only to read the memoires of Alexandre Dumas pere.

Whatever the success or failure of a play may be, the author is sure of receiving for each performance from the Porcher Agency a certain fixed sum, which the uncertainty of the receipts cannot otherwise guarantee him. These bonus tickets are re-sold direct to the public by the Porcher Agency. Their face value, by no means excessive, varies from fifty to one hundred francs for the Parisian theatres. In the provinces the author derives no pecuniary advantage from his bonus tickets. He hands them over to the general agent, who frequently uses this sort of paper currency, especially in the big towns, to pay his correspondents.

Every author who has had at least five acts from his play or plays performed at an important theatre or theatres, or who can testify to having received at least thirty thousand francs in royalties upon his dramatic work, may, after having been introduced by two Societaires and accepted by the Committee, become a Societaire. This position gives him the right to be present, to take part in the discussions, and to vote at all the authors' meetings. If, too, he become a Societaire before attaining the age of forty, he will be entitled, at sixty, to a pension of twelve thousand francs per annum. The Committee consists of fifteen members (all Societaires), one-third of whom are elected in rotation every year. Each member, therefore, is elected for three years, at the end of which period he is not re-eligible, except after a lapse of twelve months.

The importance and functions of the Committee are considerable. It meets at least once a week, sees to the signing of contracts with theatrical managers, and endeavours to arrange and settle all differences between authors and managers or fellow authors. The Committee is recognised, likewise, as a supreme arbitrator, and takes active steps to protect the authors. It can also elaborate reforms for approval and adoption by the Societaires at the general meetings, and is instrumental in securing concessions in the conditions of contracts. It also decides upon all applications for relief which are made direct to it. M. Alfred Capus is the active president of the Society, with MM. Victorien Sardou and Ludovic Halevy as honorary presidents. The active president is elected by the Committee at the commencement of each year.

Any dramatic author, not fully qualified to become a Societaire, who has a play of any description produced at a theatre having a contract with the Societe des Auteurs, is eligible as a Stagiare. He is required to signify his assent in writing to the rules of the Society, and to sign an authorisation empowering the Society to act on his behalf. He enjoys all the privileges of the Societaires as regards the collection of fees on his behalf and the protection of his rights, but he cannot take part in the meetings of the Society, nor is he entitled (so long as he remains only a Stagiare) to the pension.

The heirs and assignees are required to furnish legal proofs of their right of succession, and to signify, in the same way as the Stagiares, their adhesion to the Society's rules. They possess the same rights as the Stagiares, without, of course, ever becoming eligible as Societaires.

By subscribing to the rules the signatories undertake that their works shall be performed only at such theatres as have contracts with the Society. The duration of the Society is fixed at twenty-five years, and is renewable at the expiration of that period by vote at the general meeting. All classes of Associates, once admitted, remain members of the Society for life, subject, of course, to the Society being still in existence.

The advantages are considerable, and the foregoing particulars of the functions and organisation of this powerful Authors' Society illustrate this more effectively than any special pleading in its behalf. It is scarcely necessary to point out that young and unknown authors, by joining the Society, can, in common with their older, more fortunate, or more renowned confreres, avail themselves of the Society's vast organisation, its extensive facilities, its reputation, and its authority.

The complaints of the theatrical managers against the Society are not touched upon here, for although it may be reasonable on the part of the managers to consider it irksome to be obliged to sign, almost without discussion, the contracts binding them to the Societe des Auteurs, it is even more just to declare that the author's royalty is sacred, and that the maximum 12 per cent, is by no means exorbitant. What merchant is there, in fact, who would not rejoice at having to pay only 12 per cent, or less for his raw material?

A few suggestions, however, merit consideration. It would be desirable, for instance, to accord to certain Stagiares who attain a certain importance by the amount of royalties collected on their behalf the right to be present and to take part in the discussions at the general meetings. Gifts of premiums or bonuses might be made to managers who risk the production of the works of debutants and of comparatively unknown authors, or who undertake the revival of certain plays which have not been performed for years.

It is sometimes urged against the Society that it acts merely as a fee-collecting agency. This is scarcely just. Authors in general have more need than ever for protection, not only against the exactions of the managers, but also against the secret compromisings of their own undertakings with the Society. For this reason it is most desirable that infractions of the rules or any breach of the signed agreements should be dealt with more severely, so as to render the agreements of the Society so formidable and so binding to the signatories that none would be tempted to break through the rules. The protection of the Society might have been made still more effective if it had secured for itself recently the leases of some of the more important Parisian theatres, and thus have nipped in the bud the formidable attempt of the French Theatre Trust against the individual interests of the authors. Finally, it would be equitable to try, as an experiment, a sliding scale of fees proportioned to the average takings at each theatre respectively, as is already done in certain countries.

The freedom and independence of the theatres depend essentially upon due respect being paid to the rights of all who are concerned in their working. For this reason the admirable organisation of the Societe des Auteurs, which is capable of being improved and perfected by time and circumstances, should lead to the creation of kindred associations in France for the protection of the artists as well as the carpenters, scene shifters, etc., for the managers as well as the supers; of all, in fact, who, voluntarily or unconsciously, devote their brains and energy to the great cause of dramatic art.

* Since the foregoing was written the leases of the Palais-Royal, the Vaudeville, and the Bouffes theatres in Paris have been taken over by the Society from the Deval-Richemond Trust.